Dutch people

Dutch people Nederlanders
Rembrandt • Christiaan Huygens • Vincent Van Gogh Michiel de Ruyter • Erasmus • Maurice of Nassau
Total population
40,000,000 Including ancestries (Blue → Dutch-born) (Green → Reported ancestry)
Regions with significant populations
Netherlands 13,186,600 (Ethnic Dutch) 472,600[nb 1] (Dutch Eurasians) [1]  Belgium 116,970[nb 2] / 6,161,600[nb 3] [2][3]  United States 5,087,191 (110,000)[4] [5]  South Africa est. 5,000,000 (45,000)[6]  Canada 923,310 (120,000)[7] [8]  Australia est. 270,000 (85,000)[6] [9]  Germany est. 164,000, of which 41,000 in the border region [10]  United Kingdom 40,438 Unknown [11]  Suriname est. 151,000 [12]  New Zealand est. 100,000 (25,000)[6] [13]  France est. 83,000 (30,000)[6] [14] various others 140,000 [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20]
Languages
Dutch
Religion
Catholicism, Protestantism , Nontheism.[21][22]
Related ethnic groups
Germanic ethnic groups: Norwegians, Danish, Icelanders, Swedish, Germans, Austrians, English, Faroese, Flemings.

Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities world wide,^{[nb 4]} and form a discernible part of the populations of Canada,^[8]Australia,^[9] South Africa^[23] and the United States.^[5]

In the course of history the Dutch grew from a largely rural society to one of the most urbanized in the world, with 50% of the total population already living in cities by 1500 AD. The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of traditional music, dances, architectural styles and clothing, some of which are globally recognizable. The Dutch also have a strong presence in the international scene of modernist, and post-modern arts.

The dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity (both Catholic and Protestant), although in modern times the majority is no longer openly religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality.

Though always being relatively autonomous within the system of European feudalism, it was only in the 16th century that a Dutch state, the Dutch Republic, became de facto independent.^{[nb 5]} During the rule of the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place.

1 History 1.1 Early history 1.2 High and Late Middle Ages 1.3 Independent Dutch state 1.3.1 Batavian Myth 1.4 Modern Era 1.4.1 Cultural assimilation 2 Dutch identity today 2.1 Cultural values 3 Ethnic nationalism 4 Statistics 5 Linguistics 5.1 Language 5.2 Etymology of autonym and exonym 5.3 Names 6 Culture 6.1 Religion 6.2 Cultural divergences 6.2.1 Northern Dutch culture 6.2.2 Southern Dutch culture 6.2.2.1 Flemings 7 Dutch diaspora 7.1 Central and Eastern Europe 7.2 Scandinavia 7.3 Southern Africa 7.4 Southeast Asia 7.5 Australia and New Zealand 7.6 North America 8 Related ethno-linguistic groups 8.1 Frisians 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading

See also: History of the Netherlands

The Low Countries attained a high level of urbanization at a relatively early date. The transition from a largely tribal and rural society to a feudal and urban one was gradual, but greatly accelerated during the late 12th and 13th century. Prior to extensive Roman contact, the Low Countries had been inhabited by rural tribal communities. The new way of living that followed the Frankish conquest ultimately made it possible for a new ethnic group to emerge. The process of Christianization coincided with the loss of traditional Germanic tribalism, in which almost every village had its personal chieftain or even king, and with the continued evolution of the Dutch language,^[24] itself a direct descendant of Frankish.

As Western Europe emerged from the Migration Period, feudal states filled in the power vacuum left by the fall of the Roman Empire. The Low Countries were no exception and feudal society soon took hold of the region. Indeed many of most dominant fiefs have passed on their names to the modern provinces that make up the provinces of the Netherlands and Belgium.^{[nb 6]} Though they shared cultural and linguistical characteristics, the Dutch were effectively politically divided as the many fiefs initially all had different rulers. In subsequent centuries these various liege lords handed out a great number of town privileges, which by the 12th century (considerably earlier than in most of Europe) meant that a great deal of power had transferred from the nobility to the cities. The end of this period saw the rise of Protestantism, the Dutch being among the first to adopt this alternative form of Christianity in large numbers, and the formation of the Burgundian Netherlands which was followed by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, which were monumental steps towards Dutch autonomy.^[25] Culturally this period also saw the expansion of the Dutch into northern regions at the expense of the Frisians,^[25] and the eventual subjection of Frisia itself, while at the same time the Southern Dutch were establishing their cities (Ghent, Antwerp and Bruges) as the powerhouses of Northern Europe. The Regions of the southern Dutch were accumulating vast amounts of wealth; with Antwerp even becoming the second largest European city north of the Alps by 1560.^[25] The Dutch language also underwent a major transformation. Early in this period, Old Dutch lost much of its inflection and underwent a number of sound shifts resulting in a new stage known as Middle Dutch (c. 1150-1500).^[26]

With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, transformed this agglomeration of lands into a unified entity of which the Habsburgs would be the heirs. However, following excessive taxation together with attempts at diminishing the autonomy of the Dutch, followed by the religious oppression after being transferred to Habsburg Spain, the Dutch revolted, in what would become the Eighty Years' War. For the first time in their history, the Dutch established their independence from foreign rule.^[25]

The war eventually ended in a stalemate. The Northern Dutch reached de facto independence while the Southern Dutch (whose cultural and economic elite had fled to the North) remained under Spanish rule, resulting in a political division of the Dutch. While the power of the Southern cities was now eroding, the Northern Dutch approached the pinnacle of their wealth: they became a world power and arts and culture flourished. The Northern Dutch were now the avant-garde of Dutch culture. A practical example of this phenomenon, was the rise of painters from the North. Vermeer, Rembrandt, Hals and Steen were now the most famous Dutch painters, replacing their Southern counterparts (such as Bosch, Van Eyck and Bruegel) who had held that position in the previous era.^[25]

Dutch maritime power allowed for the establishment of colonies, though the wealth present in their homeland meant that with the exception of South Africa and the New York-area in North America, few regions saw actual settling of Dutch colonists in large numbers.^[27]

As the Northern Dutch experienced the Dutch Golden Age, the traditional range of the Dutch moved further up. The Dutch part of modern France (roughly the area of the modern region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais located on the Dutch periphery, and once the center of Dutch Protestantism), collapsed among Spanish, and later French rule, leaving only 20,000 Dutch-speakers today as opposed to an estimated 410,000 in the year 1500.^[26] The French language would also increase its range into modern Belgium starting around the beginning of the 18th century. The Dutch language itself was standardized during this period, sparking both an increase in Dutch literature as well as a decrease in dialectal diversity.^[28]

[edit] Batavian Myth

In the wake of a renewed interest in Classical Antiquity, Dutch Humanist writers of the late 15th and early 16th centuries had begun to speculate about the nature and location of the ancient Batavians, Germanic allies of the Romans who are mentioned by the Roman historian Tacitus and of whom little was known at that time. Writers from both Holland and Guelders laid claim to their region being the historical homeland of the Batavians. When Holland's political significance grew in the course of the 16th century, the issue was gradually decided in favour of the Hollandic side.^[29] During the revolt against Spain, the claim of Batavian ancestry was extended to provinces outside Holland (although it never completely shook off its Hollandic connection),^[30] and the figure of Julius Civilis, who had led a successful rebellion against the Romans, was represented as an ancient defender of the same liberties the Dutch rebels were fighting for. The 'ancestral' Batavians themselves provided models of righteous defiance combined with wise moderation for the whole nation to follow, and the idea of historical continuity with the Batavians became a national myth that endured in some form well into the 20th century.

Dutch wealth and influence had, by the second half of the 18th century, begun to diminish. The people had been split between Orangists, supporters of the Stadholder (a historical Dutch title, and a rare type of de facto hereditary head of state within the Dutch Republic) and the Patriots. In the minor civil war that ensued, the Patriots lost and in 1787 fled to the Dutch-speaking area of Dunkirk in France; only to return 7 years later together with the French revolutionary army and overthrow the Stadholder, who fled to Britain. The onslaught of the French revolutionary wars and the following Napoleonic wars saw Dutchmen fighting on both sides.^[31] The fall of Napoleon and the growing power of Prussia, resulted in the creation of a buffer state between France and the east. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands encompassed all Dutch-speaking areas in continental Europe with the exception of those situated in northern France. The country however wasn't exclusively Dutch, and a revolt started among its French-speaking inhabitants resulted in the establishment of Belgium in 1830. The subsequent oppression of the Dutch language resulted in a movement later known as the Flemish Movement, striving for equality of the Flemish in Belgium.^[26]

The Netherlands remained neutral during the First World War, while Belgium was invaded by Germany. Over a million Dutch-speaking Belgians fled to the Netherlands where they received aid, food and shelter. Over 100,000 stayed in the Netherlands the duration of the war, greatly improving the relations between both countries. After the interbellum, the Second World War erupted which resulted in the deaths of over 230,000 Dutchmen.^[32] The following baby boom propelled the population. In the Netherlands alone there has been a 51% increase of the totally number of ethnically Dutch inhabitants of the Netherlands since 1940.^{[nb 7]}

Apart from the social and political turmoil as described above, this period was also marked with two occurrences of mass emigration. The first wave left Europe between 1850 and the start of World War I, mainly to the United States and South Africa, but also regions belonging to the Dutch Empire, such as Indonesia. The second emigration wave lasted roughly from 1946 to 1960, and saw large Dutch emigration not only to the United States and South Africa, but also to Australia, New Zealand and Canada.^[33]

[edit] Cultural assimilation

Dutch identity in the sense of self-identification on a nation-wide scale can be said to have taken shape in the latter part of the 19th century. The Dutch Republic had been marked by particularism, and after the Napoleonic era the Netherlands, although politically united, kept a culturally fragmented outlook until well into the third quarter of the 19th century. Although a more supra-regional orientation was present among some of the Protestant bourgeoisie in the cities of Holland, most people felt primarily attached to their own town or region rather than considering themselves 'Netherlanders'.^[34] Some time after c. 1860, in the wake of modernization, this traditional outlook started to erode. The ever faster infrastructural, economic, and political integration of the country was followed by a process of cultural homogenization, and already in the 1870s it was noted that traditional clothing had started to disappear from some villages.^[35] At the same time, the improving infrastructure enabled the central government to exert a much more direct influence on people's lives than previously possible, and such innovations as compulsory education and military service produced a new identification with, and loyalty to, the Kingdom of the Netherlands at large. The mass media further contributed to the spread of the Dutch standard language and the development of a national culture at the cost of regional dialects and identities, although the past few decades have also seen a renewed interest in local culture in reaction to this dominant tendency. Eventually many regional traditions have disappeared completely or were greatly transformed,^[36] while others, such as the Elfstedentocht, gained the status of a national event.^[37]

In the Netherlands, as in most Western-European societies, ethnicity in its classic form has been attenuated by historical developments, and ethnic identity becomes salient only in a limited number of situations.^[38] Additionally, probably due to the traditionally open character of Dutch society, ideas of nationhood and national pride have never caught on in a strong degree.^[39] It should be noted, however, that the (re)definition of Dutch cultural identity has become a subject of public debate in recent years following the increasing influence of the European Union and the influx of non-Western immigrants in the post-World War II period. In this debate 'typically Dutch traditions' have been put to the foreground, ranging from a history of political and religious tolerance to the celebration of the feast of Sinterklaas.^[40] In sociological studies and governmental reports, ethnicity is often referred to with the terms autochtoon and allochtoon.^[41] These legal concepts refer to place of birth and citizenship rather than cultural background and do not coincide with the more fluid concepts of ethnicity used by cultural anthropologists.

The Dutch typically see their countrymen as sober, practical and down-to-earth people. Any form of ostentation is likely to be criticised, and straightforwardness is generally appreciated.^[42]

Modern Dutch society is relatively egalitarian.^[43] Traditional hierarchies are far less strictly observed than in, for example, neighbouring Germany, and it is not uncommon for students to address their teachers in an informal way. Another typical trait of Dutch society is the strong emphasis that is placed on consensus building, of which the so-called 'polder model' is one of the internationally best known expressions. The tradition of compromising, which is a pragmatic rather than an idealistic one, can also be observed in the historical tolerance toward the religions and customs of different cultural groups and, more recently, the opinions and personal lifestyles of individuals; it can also be discerned in the phenomenon of verzuiling, which dominated Dutch society in the first half of the 20th century.

Foreign visitors are often struck by the apparent lack of chauvinism and by what appears to be an almost cultivated neglect of Dutch national achievements, and, conversely, by a (perceived) tendency on the part of the Dutch to moralise and to criticise other cultures.

As did many European ethnicities during the 19th century,^{[nb 8]} the Dutch also saw the emerging of various Greater Netherlands- and Pan-Movements which, in their politicized forms, sought to unite the Dutch and the Flemings, whom they considered one people, into a single state. During the first half of the 20th century there was a prolific surge in writings expressing this idea. One of its most active spokesmen was the acclaimed historian Pieter Geyl, who wrote De Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche stam (Dutch: "The History of the Dutch tribe") as well as numerous essays on the subject, in which he deplored the historical divergence between the North and the South.

During World War II, when both Belgium and the Netherlands fell to German occupation, fascist elements (such as the NSB and Verdinaso) tried to convince the Nazis into combining the Netherlands and Flanders. The Germans however refused to do so, as this would conflict with their ultimate goal of a 'Germanic Europe'.^{[nb 9]} During the entire Nazi occupation the Germans denied any assistance to Dutch ethnic nationalism, and, by decree of Hitler himself, actively opposed it.^[44]

Beginning in the 1970s, a renewed interest in ethnicity appeared,^{[citation needed]} which also marked the beginning of cultural and linguistic cooperation between Belgium (Flanders) and the Netherlands which continues to this day. The issue of reuniting regularly emerges, most recently after the long Belgian political crisis of 2007/2008. Aside from individual supporters (Grootneerlandisme) there exist a number of political party's/social movements such as the Dutch Peoples-Union, Die Roepstem, Voorpost. Most of these organizations, however, (especially the Dutch Peoples-Union) belong to the extreme right fringe of Dutch and Belgian politics.

The total number of Dutch can be defined in roughly two ways. By taking the total of all people with full Dutch ancestry according to the current CBS definition, resulting in an estimated 16.000.000 Dutch people,^[45] or by the sum of all people with both full and partial Dutch or Flemish ancestry, which would result in a number around 31.500.000.^{[citation needed]}

Excluding the Netherlands and Belgium.

Dutch language speakers in Europe.

Main article: Dutch language

Dutch is the language spoken by most Dutch people. It is a West Germanic language spoken by around 22 million people. The language was first attested in 470 AD,^{[nb 10]} in a Frankish legal text, the Lex Salica, and has a written record of more than 1550 years.

As a West Germanic language, Dutch is related to other languages in that group such as Frisian, English and German. Many West Germanic dialects experienced a series of sound shifts. The Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law and Anglo-Frisian brightening resulted in certain early Germanic languages evolving into what are now English and Frisian, while the Second Germanic sound shift resulted in what would become German. Dutch experienced none of these sound changes and can thus be said to occupy a central position within the West Germanic languages.

Standard Dutch has a sound inventory of 13 vowels, 6 diphthongs and 23 consonants, of which the voiceless velar fricative (hard ch) is considered a well known sound, perceived as typical for the language. Other relatively well known features of the Dutch language and use are the frequent use digraphs like Oo, Ee, Uu and Aa, the ability to form long compounds and the use of diseases as profanity.

Dutch immigrants also exported the Dutch language. Dutch was spoken in United States as a native language from the arrival of the first permanent Dutch settlers in 1615, surviving in isolated ethnic pockets until ~1900, when it ceased to be spoken with the exception of 1st generation Dutch immigrants. The Dutch language nevertheless had a significant impact on the region around New York. For example, American president Martin van Buren first language was Dutch.^[46] Most of the Dutch immigrants of the 20th century quickly began to speak the language of their new country. For example, of the inhabitants of New Zealand, 0.7% say their home language is Dutch,^{[nb 11]} despite the percentage of Dutch heritage being considerably higher.^[47]

Dutch is currently an official language of the Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles and the European Union. In South Africa, Afrikaans is spoken, a descendant of Dutch, which itself was an official language of South Africa until 1925. The Dutch, Flemish and Surinamese governments coordinate their language activities in the Nederlandse Taalunie (Dutch Language Union), an institution also responsible for governing the Dutch Standard language, for example in matters of orthography.

Further information: Dietsch

The origins of the word Dutch go back to Proto-Germanic, the ancestor of all Germanic languages, *theudo (meaning "national/popular"); akin to Old Dutch dietsc, Old High German diutsch, Old English þeodisc and Gothic þiuda all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". As the tribes among the Germanic peoples began to differentiate its meaning began to change. The Anglo-Saxons of England for example gradually stopped referring to themselves as þeodisc and instead started to use Englisc, after their tribe. On the continent *theudo evolved into two meanings: Diets (meaning "Dutch (people)" (archaic)^{[nb 12]}) and Deutsch (German, meaning "German (people)"). At first the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all of the Germanic speakers on the European mainland (e.g. the Dutch, the Flemings and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the Germanic people they had most contact with, both because their geographical proximity, but also because of the rivaltry in trade and overseas territories: the people from the Republic of the Netherlands, the Dutch.^[48]

In the Dutch language, the Dutch refer to themselves as Nederlanders. Nederlanders derives from the Dutch word "Neder", a cognate of English "Nether" both meaning "low", and "near the sea" (same meaning in both English and Dutch), a reference to the geographical texture of the Dutch homeland; the western portion of the Northern European plain.^[49][50][51] Although not as old as Diets, the term Nederlands has been in continuous use since 1250.^[52]

Main article: Dutch name

Dutch surnames (and surnames of Dutch origin) are generally easily recognizable. There are several main types of surnames in Dutch:

• Patronymic surnames; the name is based on the personal name of the father of the bearer. Historically this has been by far the most dominant form. These type of names fluctuated in form as the surname was not constant. If a man called Willem Janssen (William, John's son) had a son named Jacob, he would be known as Jacob Willemsen (Jacob, Williams' son). Following civil registry, the contemporary form became permanent. Hence today many Dutch people are named after ancestors living in the early 1800s when civil registry was introduced to the Low Countries. These names rarely feature tussenvoegsels.
• Surnames relating to geographical origin; the name is based on the location on which the bearer lives or lived. In Dutch this form of surname nearly always includes one or several tussenvoegsels, mainly van, van de and variants. Many immigrants removed the spacing, leading to deived names for well known people like Cornelius Vanderbilt.^[53] While "van" denotes "of", Dutch surnames are sometimes associated with the upper class of society or aristocracy (cf. William of Orange). However, in Dutch van often reflects the original place of origin (Van Der Bilt - He who comes from Bilt); rather than denote any aristocratic status.^[54]
• Surnames relating to Occupation; the name is based on the occupation of the bearer. Well known examples include Molenaar, Visser and Smit. This practice is similar to English surnames (the example names translate perfectly to Miller, Fisher and Smith).^{[nb 13]}
• Surnames relating to physical appearance/other features; the name is based on the appearance or character of the bearer (at least at the time of registration). For example "De Lange" (the tall one), "De Groot" (the big one), ["De Dappere" (the brave one).
• Other surnames may relate to animals. For example; De Leeuw (The Lion), Vogels (Birds), Koekkoek (Cuckoo) and Devalck (The Falcon); to a desired social status; e.g., Prins (Prince), Keuning/De Koninck (King), De Keyzer (Emperor). There is also a set of made up or descriptive names; e.g. Naaktgeboren (born naked).

Dutch names can differ greatly in spelling. The surname Baks, for example is also recorded as Backs, Bacxs, Bakx, Baxs, Bacx Backx, Bakxs and Baxcs. Though written differently, pronunciation remains identical. Surnames of Dutch migrants in foreign environments (mainly the Anglosphere and Francophonie) are often adapted, not only in pronunciation but also in spelling.

Main article: Dutch culture

Further information: Dutch architecture, Dutch customs and etiquette, Dutch cuisine, Dutch festivities, Dutch literature, Dutch music, Dutch art, and Dutch folklore

Main article: History of Dutch religion

Further information: Religion in the Netherlands

Prior to the arrival of Christianity, the ancestors of the Dutch adhered a form of Germanic paganism augmented with various Celtic elements. At the start of the 6th century the first (Hiberno-Scottish) missionaries arrived. They were later replaced by Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who eventually succeeded in converting most of the inhabitants by the 8th century.^[55] Christianity then dominated Dutch religion until the early 16th century, when the Protestant Reformation began to form. Among the Dutch it began its spread in the Westhoek and the County of Flanders, where secret sermons were held in the outside, called hagenpreken ("hedgerow orations") in Dutch. The ruler of the Dutch regions, Philip II of Spain, felt it was his duty to fight Protestantism, and, after the wave of iconoclasm, sent troops to crush the rebellion and make the Low Countries a Catholic region once more.^[56] The Protestants, in the Southern Low Countries fled North en masse.^[56] Most of the Dutch Protestants were now concentrated in the free Dutch provinces above the river Rhine, while the Catholic Dutch were situated in the Spanish occupied or dominated South. After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Protestantism did not spread South, resulting in a religious situation, lasting to this day.

Contemporary Dutch are generally nominally Christians.^[57][58] People of Dutch ancestry in the United States are generally more religious than their European counterparts; for example the numerous Dutch communities of western Michigan remain strongholds of the Reformed Church in America, and the Christian Reformed Church, both descendants of the Dutch Reformed Church.

There are various cultural differences between the Northern Dutch on one side and the Southern Dutch and Belgian Dutch-speakers (Flemings) on the other. Although the actual differences are often exaggerated,^[59] internal divergences play a part in the daily life within the Dutch-speaking region and are factors in personal identification among its inhabitants. Besides the general urban-rural contrasts, or specific regional traditions, there is only one true major cultural divide. ^[60]

differences are most notable between the Northern Dutch (roughly those Dutch living North of the rivers Rhine and/or Meuse), and the Southern Dutch (those living South of these rivers). Not, as is sometimes assumed, between the Netherlands and Flanders.^{[citation needed]} The division is partially caused by (traditional) religious differences, with the North predominantly Protestant and the South having a majority of Catholics. Linguistic (dialectal) differences and to a lesser extent, historical economic development of both regions are also important elements in any dissimilarity. Even though the modern economic model of both Northern Belgium and the Netherlands is rather similar (focusing on the major ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp^{[nb 14]} and with their respective GDP per capita being fairly close.)^[61]

Various factors contributing to differences within the Dutch are:

• The Rhine-Meuse Delta. This delta traditionally formed a barrier within the Low Countries. Around 120 A.D. it formed the Northernmost Roman border in Continental Europe. During the second half of the Dutch Revolt it became the boundary of the contested areas, with the Dutch republic in firm command of the Northern Netherlands and the Spanish in command of Flanders and Southern Brabant, the regions now known as the provinces of North-Brabant and Limburg were contested. The Dutch Republic controlled vital fortified cities, while the Spanish generally controlled the surrounding countryside.
• Religious development. Protestantism is part of the cultural division between the Dutch and the Flemish. During the Dutch revolt the Spanish controlled the South, whose Protestants fled North; while the Republic controlled the North, with many Catholics moving south. The North became largely Protestant; while the South, under the influence of the Counter reformation, remained or reverted to Catholicism.
• Political development. The Dutch Revolt did not accomplish it intended goals; the liberation of all members of the Union of Utrecht. Brabant was only partially in rebel hands, while Mechelen and the county of Flanders remained under Spanish control. The Northern Netherlands would have a relatively constant political climate for centuries, while the situation in the South would remain instable, and would be part of the Southern Netherlands, Austrian Netherlands and the United States of Belgium. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Low Countries were briefly unified in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This Kingdom collapsed due to various causes. The Flemings would become part of the bi-lingual state of Belgium. Nowadays, Belgium is a largely segregated state, where the speakers of the two main languages, Dutch and French, live in separate communities.
• Dialectal situation. Though all Dutch dialects form a continuum, general consensus among linguists is that the Dutch language has 28 main dialects. These dialects are usually grouped into 6 main categories; Hollandic, West-Flemish/Zealandic, East Flemish, Brabantic, Limburgish and Dutch Saxon.^[62] Of these dialects, Brabantic, Limburgish and East Flemish are spoken exclusively by the Southern Dutch, whereas Hollandic and Dutch Saxon are solely spoken by Northerners. West-Flemish/Zealandic is a cross border dialect in this respect.
• Economic development. Prior to the Dutch revolt the South was the economic powerhouse of the Low Countries, while the North at this time was comparatively rustic and less urbanized. This changed when during the revolt when the Southern economy was destabilised by the revolt, leading to a braindrain to the North, which soon became more wealthy and powerful.

[edit] Northern Dutch culture

Northern Dutch culture is marked by Protestantism. Though today many do not adhere to Protestantism anymore, or are only nominally part of a congregation, Protestant (influenced) values and custom are present. Generally, it can be said the Northern Dutch are more pragmatic, favor a direct approach and display a less exuberant lifestyle when compared to Southerners.^[63] On a global scale, the Northern Dutch have formed the dominant vanguard of the Dutch language and culture since the fall of Antwerp, exemplified by the use of 'Dutch' itself as the demonym for the country in which they form a majority; the Netherlands. Linguistically, Northerners speak any of the Hollandic, Zealandic and Dutch Low Saxon dialects natively, or are influenced by them when they speak the Standard form of Dutch. Economically and culturally the traditional center of the region have been the provinces of North and South Holland, or today; the Randstad, although for a brief period during the 1200s/1300s it lay in east, when various eastern towns and cities aligned themselves with the emerging Hanseatic League. The entire Northern Dutch cultural area is located in the Netherlands, its ethnically Dutch population is estimated to be just under 10,000,000.^{[nb 15]}

[edit] Southern Dutch culture

The Southern Dutch sphere generally consists of the areas in which the population was traditionally Catholic. During the early Middle Ages up until the Dutch Revolt, the Southern regions were more powerful, as well as more culturally and economically developed.^[63] At the end of the Dutch Revolt, it became clear the Habsburgs were unable to reconquer the North, while the North's military was too weak to conquer the South, which, under the influence of the Counter-Reformation, had started to develop a political and cultural identity of its own.^[64] The Southern Dutch, including Dutch Brabant and Limburg, remained Catholic or returned to Catholicism. The Dutch dialects spoken by this group are Brabantic, Limburgish and East and West Flemish. Unlike the Northern Dutch, Southerners are spread out between three countries; Belgium (where they are known as Flemings), the Netherlands and a small (~20,000) minority living in France. In the Netherlands, an oft-used adage used for indicating this cultural boundary is the phrase boven/onder de rivieren (Dutch: above/below the rivers), in which 'the rivers' refer to the river Rhine and Meuse. The total population of the Southern Dutch cultural sphere is estimated to be at 9,500,000.^{[nb 16]}

[edit] Flemings

Main article: Flemings

Today Flemings has become the term used for all Dutch speaking communities in the Southern Netherlands, now Belgium, as well as anyone belonging to the modern part of Belgium named the Flemish Community and/or an inhabitant of the Flemish Region of Belgium.^[65] Historically however, Fleming had a much broader meaning, which could encompass all Dutch, whether northern or southern. In fact, 'Flanders' was often used as a synonym for 'Low Countries', as seen in the title of a Spanish contemporary play (and referring to) the Dutch Revolt called Los amotinados de Flandes, meaning 'the rioters of Flanders'.^[66]

With the revolt of 1830 resulting in the creation of the country, Belgium, there now existed a strained interplay between the two countries. In the Netherlands the revolt was a traumatic experience and resulted in a reticent and contentious relationship with the newly formed Belgium and a largely indifferent attitude towards its Dutch-speaking inhabitants.^[67] In Belgium the bliss of the revolt soon shifted as the Dutch language and culture were oppressed by the new Francophone government. The following social struggle between Dutch-speakers of Belgium, or Flemings as they began calling themselves (reminiscent of the County of Flanders, a rich and powerful medieval fief known for its struggles with France) and French-speakers would eventually transform Belgium from a unitary to a federal state.

Historically, culturally and linguistically the situation is complex. Until 1980, for example, the current Flemish Community was known as the Dutch Cultural Community and Vlaams Belang, a right-wing Flemish nationalist party making up ~25% of the Flemish Parliament, writes in its program that one of its goals is the protection of Dutch culture and language.^[68] Since the end of World War II and the establishment of the European Union, there has been a growing interest in the preservation of what is often called 'Dutchophone Culture' among the various governments of Flanders/Belgium and the Netherlands.^[69] Resulting in various "Cultural treaties", an international Dutch-language broadcasting channel (BVN) and linguistic cooperation (Taalunie) among others.

Main article: Dutch diaspora

Since World War II, Dutch Emigrants mainly went to the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, (until the 1970s) to South Africa. Today Dutch immigrants can be found in most developed countries. In several former Dutch colonies and trading settlements, there are isolated ethnic groups of full or partial Dutch ancestry.

During the Ostsiedlung, Germans and Dutch settled east of the Elbe and Saale rivers, regions largely inhabited by Polabian Slavs.^[70] After the capture of territory along the Elbe and Havel Rivers in the 1160s, Dutch settlers from flooded regions in Holland used their expertise to build dikes in Brandenburg.^[71] From the 13th to the 15th centuries, Prussia invited several waves of Dutch and Frisians to settle throughout the country (mainly along the Baltic Sea coast).^[72] In 1241, after raiding Russia and Poland, the Mongols invaded Silesia and looted much of the region. The ruling Silesian lords made up for the recent population loss by inviting new settlers, mostly German and Dutch colonists.

In the early-to-mid 1500s, Mennonites began to move from the Low Countries (especially Friesland) and Flanders to the Vistula delta region in Royal Prussia, seeking religious freedom and exemption from military service.^[73] When the Prussian government eliminated exemption from military service on religious grounds, the Mennonites emigrated to Russia. They were offered land along the Volga River. Some settlers left for Siberia in search for fertile land.^[74]

A handful of German and Dutch craftsmen and traders were allowed to establish themselves in Moscow's German Quarter, providing essential technical skills in the capital. Gradually, this policy extended to a few other major cities. In 1682 Moscow had about 200,000 citizens, 18,000 of them were Nemtsy, which means western foreigner. Peter the Great was a frequent guest in the German Quarter, and he met his mistress Anna Mons there.

Historically Dutch also lived directly East of the German-Dutch border, most have since been assimilated (apart from ~40,000 recent border migrants), especially since the establishment of Germany itself in 1872. Cultural marks can still be found though. In some villages and towns a Dutch Reformed church is present, and a number of border districts (such as Cleves, Borken and Viersen) have towns and village with an etymologically Dutch origin. In the area around Cleves (Ger.Kleve, Du. Kleef) traditional dialect is Dutch, rather than surrounding (High/Low) German. More to the South, cities historically housing many Dutch traders have retained Dutch exonyms for example Aachen (Aken) and Cologne/Köln (Keulen) to this day.

In the 17th century, Dutch merchants dominated trade and shipping between the Baltic region and the rest of Europe. By the 1680s, an avarage nearly 1000 Dutch ships entered the Baltic each year.^[75] Everywhere around the Baltic Sea, Dutchmen had settled and kept speaking their own language.^[76] In the 1500s Dutch merchant vessels began to visit ports in southern Norway to purchase salmon and other goods. During the 17 and 18th Century, many Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands and in particular Amsterdam.^[77]

The Gothenburg in Sweden was heavily influenced by the Dutch. Dutch city planners were contracted to build the city as they had the skills needed to build in the marshy areas around the city. The town was planned after Dutch cities to have canals like Amsterdam. The Swedish king "lured" the Dutch people to Sweden with the promise of free trade. The Dutchmen initially won political power and it was not until 1652, when the Swedes acquired political power over Gothenburg.^[78][79]

Main articles: Afrikaners, Cape Dutch, Boers, and Basters

In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape in 1652. Initially the settlement was meant as a re-supply point and way station for Dutch East India Company vessels on their way back and forth between the Netherlands and the East Indies. The support station gradually became a settler community. However, the rural inhabitants of the colony soon began to dislike the power held by the Dutch India Company (it stopped the colony's policy of open immigration, monopolized trade, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers into one body, told the farmers what crops to grow, demanded a large percentage of every farmer's harvest, and harassed them.) Slowly these farmers moved away from the Cape, eventually becoming known as 'trekboers', and settled deeper into South Africa and eventually Namibia. Today the Boers and Cape Dutch are known collectively as the Afrikaners, while the descendants of Cape Dutch and local black women are known as the Basters.

Their main language is Afrikaans, a form of creolized Dutch, which was considered a Dutch dialect until the late 19th century. Afrikaans and Dutch are mutually intelligible, though this relation can in some fields (such as lexicon, spelling and grammar) be asymmetric, as it is easier for Dutch-speakers to understand Afrikaans than it is for Afrikaans-speakers to understand Dutch.^[80]

Main articles: Indo people and Burghers

Since the 16th century, there has been a Dutch presence in South East Asia, Taiwan and Japan. In many cases the Dutch were the first Europeans the natives would encounter. Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia.^[81] The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of them made the Indies their new home.^[82] Interaction between the Dutch and native population mainly took place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands. Most of the time Dutch soldiers intermarried with local women and settled down in the colonies. Through the centuries there developed a relatively large Dutch-speaking population of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, known as Indos or Dutch-Indonesians. The expulsion of Dutchmen following the Indonesian Revolt, means that currently the majority of this group lives in the Netherlands.

Main articles: Dutch New Zealanders, Australians of Dutch descent

Perhaps the most successful integration of Dutch people took place in Australia and New Zealand. After World War II, thousands of Dutch people emigrated to Australia, peaking in the late 1950s and early 1960s. There are 24 Dutch language programs around Australia and weekly and monthly Dutch news papers plus many social, community and religious clubs. Despite these figures, in both Australia and New Zealand Dutch people are highly integrated. Apart from the typical Dutch surnames many descendants bear, they are largely indistinguishable from the largest ethnic groups, the Anglo-Celtic Australians (85%^[83] ) in Australia and other New Zealand Europeans in New Zealand. One major exception exists though. and this concerns senior citizens of Dutch decent, many of whom (because of old age or dementia) have lost the ability to speak English and fall back on their mother tongue; Dutch. A major social problem as they largely lack a way to communicate. Their children generally do not speak Dutch natively or sufficiently.

Main articles: Dutch Americans and Dutch Canadians

The Dutch had settled in America long before the establishment of the United States of America.^{[nb 17]} For a long time the Dutch lived in Dutch colonies, owned and regulated by the Dutch Republic, which later became part of the Thirteen Colonies. Nevertheless, many Dutch communities remained virtually isolated towards the rest of America up until the American Civil War, in which the Dutch fought for the North and adopted many American ways.^[84]

Most future waves of Dutch immigrants were quickly assimilated. There have been three American presidents of Dutch descent: Martin van Buren (8th, first president who was not of British descent, first language was Dutch), Franklin D. Roosevelt (32nd, elected to four terms in office, he served from 1933 to 1945, the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms) and Theodore Roosevelt (26th).

In Canada 923,310 Canadians claim full or partial Dutch ancestry. The first Dutch people to come to Canada were Dutch Americans among the United Empire Loyalists. The largest wave was in the late 19th and early 20th century, when large numbers of Dutch helped